1. Science
  2. Biodiversity Overview
  3. Threats

Threats

The ecological footprint website indicates that historic Palestine (they put the whole area including the West Bank plus the Golan as “Israel”) has a significant ecological deficit (high ecological footprint per capita). However, the footprint for the Palestinian areas with suppressed and underdeveloped economy after decades of occupation is very small. For example, the water footprint for the Palestinian areas per capita liters/day, of which 93% is internal. Meanwhile, for Israel it is 6300 liters/day, of which 82% is external (link to water footprint).  The total environmental situation in state of Palestine is poor (as discussed below). The major threats are classified per IUCN globally and fall under six major categories which are discussed below. The key actions are to prioritize the threats and then deal with them in a way that gives maximum impact on the most urgent threats.  While some authors have tried to focus on certain threats, others believe it is critical that in local areas, research and conservation efforts integrate responses to the various threats (Bonebrake et al., 2018). The global IPBES assessment actually proposes the need for massive restructuring of economies if we are to have sustainability of our ecosystems (IPBES, 2019).

Climate Change

The main cause of climate change is the use of hydrocarbons for energy producing green house gases. The six urgent areas identified for action in the World Scientists’ Warning of a Climate Emergency and its updates are: energy, atmospheric pollutants, nature, food, population and economy (Ripple et al, 2021). The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) addressed the threats of climate change on human and animal life discussed at the 1992 earth summit in Rio de Janeiro, and it entered into force on 21 March 1994 (Schipper, 2006). Climate Change is the top challenge facing humanity over the next decade according to (UNESCO). The latest COP26 in Glasgow was disappointing to activists because the governments failed to take the drastic challenge seriously (Tobin & Barritt, 2021).

The impact of Climate Change on the State of Palestine (SP) will be dramatic and efforts must be made for both mitigation and adaptation (SP, 2020b). In 2010, SP, funded by the UNDP, produced the “Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Programme of Action for the Palestinian Authority” (Mimi et al, .2010). The strategy identified three regions (case studies) as having particularly high levels of climate vulnerability: Massafer Yatta (West Bank), the easternmost areas of the Jordan River Valley (West Bank), and the Gaza Strip (UNDP, 2010). The strategy proposed a program of nine No-regrets and seven Low-regrets adaptation measures with prioritization. In 1999 NBSAP, a project for climate change mitigation, was proposed: Project 7 Combating Desertification and Coping with the Adverse Effects of Climate Change (NBSAP, 1999). The Environment Sector Strategy (EQA, 2010) addresses “measures required to cope with climate change, combat desertification and confront environmental and natural disasters are taken”.

On 17 March 2016, SP officially became the 197th party to the United Nations Framework Convention on the Climate Change (UNFCCC), and subsequently submitted its Initial National Communication Report (INCR) and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) to the UNFCCC. It also ratified the Paris Agreement on 22 April 2016. In the same year, EQA put together a National Adaptation Plan to Climate Change (NAP).  Internal targets from the EQA, published in the 6th National Report to the CBD, included the following target: Target 8: “By 2022, the efficiency of environmental ecosystems to provide ecological services has raised mainly for the adaptation to climate change and for combating desertification and the proportion of carbon uptake has increased by 50 % through preservation, conservation and the rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems” (EQA, 2021). This was not accomplished and the new NBSAP addresses practically how it can be.

Abdullah et al. (2021) proposed further cooperation between Europe and its southern neighbors to deal with issues of climate change. In the Mediterranean region, it is critical to focus on three key issues that are impacted by climate change: food, water, and energy (Mohtar 2017; for agriculture see link). However, those issues are all interconnected as agriculture is mainly affected by irrigation. In fact, the impacts of climate change are assessed by the amount of water retention from crops and groundwater (Mizyed, 2009

A main obstacle to designing appropriate measures for climate change adaptation and mitigation is the lack of data on the ground, effects and measured variables (Sternberg et al., 2015). One of the risks associated with climate change is an increase of plant pests, including Cephalica taurinensis, Thaumetropoea wilkinsoni, and Tomicus destruens (Gregory et al., 2009). In fact, 42% of the global crop yield is lost due to fungal and bacterial pests spread because of changing climate (Chakraborty, 2005).

Mainstreaming the serious issue of climate change is essential, including reaching the next generation with tailored/well researched methods. For example, a series of short animated videos on various issues were based on earlier posters and educational programs, in a collaboration between palestinenature.org and Zoe Environment Network, Geneva.  

The 6th National CBD Report proposed measures that can be implemented to meet ABT 15 and recommend the following for the new NBSAP: 

  1. Protect and restore native vegetation on vulnerable areas and determine sites for native vegetation.
  2. Prioritize highly degraded ecosystems that provide essential ecosystem services and are critical to ecological connectivity.
  3. Empower sustainable land use by indigenous and local communities.
  4. Enact market instruments that discourage exploitation of ecosystems.
  5. Consider income generation along with restoration activities to make restoration economically viable.
  6. Develop landscape management approaches with stakeholders that encourage large-scale restoration while considering the socioeconomic needs of local communities.
  7. Identify and geospatially map opportunities for restoration.
  8. Identify investments and insurance opportunities for restoration,
  9. Emphasize restoration efforts in forests that are becoming carbon sinks.

Habitat destruction and Overexploitation

Globally, habitat destruction and overexploitation are considered two of the five major drivers of biodiversity loss (Alroy, 2017; Skogen et al., 2018’; Chase et al., 2020). Locally, the 6th National Report summarized habitat destruction and other threats that affect our local biodiversity. There were additional studies after the 6th National Report that also involve this issue (see for example Qumsiyeh and Abusarhan, 2022). The ranking of threats in the Palestinian Environment according to the 5th and 6th national CBD report is available and seems reasonable although this could be adjusted when and if additional data becomes available (EQA, 2015; Table 1). Another report used the Delphi approach to ask some ‘experts’ what the main threats are, and reaching a different answer (Abdallah and Swaileh, 2011; AlHirsh et al., 2016). AlHirsh et al. (2016) used interviews with selected individuals involved in environmental issues in SP to see what are the threats that are most prominent to the majority of those individuals.

Fires: Fires affected especially the mono-culture of pine trees in our region more than other places (Israel replaced polyculture with monoculture around destroyed Palestinian villages). In the West Bank, it was noted that fires in forested protected areas contribute to decline of tree cover.

Use of Insecticide, Pesticides and Pollinators: Palestinian agriculture was developed during the Natufian period and was relatively in harmony with nature for over 10,000 years. However, the modern practices of agriculture, especially pest control methods via chemical means, have resulted in significant environmental hazards. The introduction of pesticides came under British mandate rule, 1920-1948, and was expanded after the Nakba of 1948. Pesticides are now used extensively in Palestinian agriculture, and this is partly due to the reduction in the land available to Palestinian agriculture, and under the mistaken belief that the use of pesticides is indispensable to increase yield (Al-Sa‵ ed et al., 2011) trates seem to affect the health of people there (Abu Naser et al., 2007; Al-Absi, 2008). Pesticides negatively influence agricultural production long-term (Glover-Amengor and Tetteh, 2008; Kalia and Gosal, 2011) and on biodiversity (Geiger et al., 2010; Brühl et al., 2019). Agricultural practices that do not ensure agricultural biodiversity or rotate crops (i.e. monoculture and “agriculture industry”) are devastating to sustainability and environmental protection (Garnett et al., 2013; Tscharntke et al., 2012; Wezel, 2014). Agricultural biodiversity websites like this http://www.bioversityinternational.org/ are now important to study and be aware of, and the MOA is key to this.

The conservation of agrobiodiversity became part of the national agenda when the MOA adopted a national policy for “promoting the conservation of Agrobiodiversity”. Pollinators from various insect groups and other animals, including birds, mammals and reptiles, started to reduce, and this has lead to bad agricultural methods including the heavy use of chemicals to control pests and preventing animals from interacting with growing plants. In this case, the life cycle of many invertebrates and vertebrates is broken, leading to a reduction in species’ population numbers and becoming categorized as ‘near threatened’ or ‘endangered’.

Urban Sprawl: In developing countries, sustainable urban policies need to be developed in ways that ensures long-term positive impacts to deal with urban sprawl. This creates an economic impact and allows for the maintenance of adequate standards of living. In the region, the urban population grew rapidly to now constitute 2/3rds of the population (World Bank, 2021). Urban sprawl is driven by factors like preferences for living in low density areas, progress in car manufacturing, land-use regulations, low motor fuel taxes and other policies encouraging car use which all have significant environmental, economic and social consequences and must be addressed as a sustainable development connected to all these other issues. The main challenge is to balance market-driven forces for ease and comfort to individuals short-term with the long-term benefit of a clean environment and rich biodiversity (OECD, 2018). Population projections (SP, 2016) reveal that the population of SP will increase from 4.7 million in 2015 to 6.9 million in 2030, and will double to reach 9.5 million in 2050. Urban planning in a way that preserves biodiversity requires data that is reliable to measure indicators and impact (Artmann et al., 2019). In Palestinian areas, there is little urban planning (e.g. Shaheen, 2021).  In 2014, SP adopted a national spatial plan and implementation initiated. The plan takes into account protected areas within KBAs for the purpose of development regulation. This is only partially effective because of the lack of Palestinian sovereignty over all the land of SP. For example, Israel exerts control over Gaza maritime zone (plus Gaza is blockaded) and Area C comprises most of the West Bank and is under Israeli civil and military control. This limits the State's ability to implement the spatial plan.  Regarding the loss of habitats, there is a significant shortage of data and it has not been managed well in the past. After writing the cross-sectoral strategy (EQA 2017), the Palestinian Government committed resources and experts to conserve the environment. The EQA engaged with IUCN and others on analysis of levels of protection in different KBAs, including a gap analysis. This project is for 2021-2022 and should result in better protection. However, much depends on political developments in the next few years. Furthermore, better management and measures to be taken to stem the loss of habitats and species should be now incorporated in the new NBSAP, and a new spatial plan going forward to 2050.

Significant growth of population is witnessed in SP, with total population jumping from less than one million in 1916 to over 13 million in 2016. Some of this is attributable to natural population increase but nearly half of it is Jewish immigration. This is creating pressures on the environment, as evidenced in the decline in biodiversity, (Qumsiyeh et al., 2014b), e.g. a decline in frog population (Salman et al., 2014), and a change in diet of raptors like the Eagle Owl (Amr et al., 2016).  The fact that between the river Jordan and the Mediterranean, there are now over 12 million people with over 3 million cars has also created a large problem with air pollution and increased lead pollution is already evident (Tal, 2002; Safi et al., 2006).

There is increased population density coupled with Israel’s restriction on Bedouin communities and this causes Bedouins to overuse the shrinking areas that they are allowed to use. Jahhalin, for example, moved from Negev to the Jordan Valley in 1948, then to Jerusalem eastern hills in 1967, and soon will be moved to Aizarya. This results in overgrazing in the few remaining open areas (ARIJ 2015). In Gaza, there are limitations on fishermen going out to sea beyond a very small 3 nautical mile area. The restrictions result in overfishing and, combined with the environmental impact of exploring for and extracting gas, there is a significant threat to Mediterranean biodiversity. A UN report on Gaza in 2012 stated that the territory might not be habitable within by 2020 (UN, 2012) and this is indeed the case now. Overexplotation and habitat destruction in Gaza has left little natural areas or green cover beyond the very limited cultivated areas.

There is also significant hunting and trading of wildlife (Yom-Tov, 2003; Handal et al. 2021; Abd Rabou et al., 2007, 2015; AlHirsh, 2016). This is especially harmful in protected areas in many parts of SP (e.g. Wadi Al-Quff, see Qumsiyeh et al., 2016). But also, infrastructure development needs to take into account the cutting down of forests and the impact on wildlife continuity, whether this is for road building (Achiron-Frumkin 2013) or for the building of the segregation barrier deep inside the West Bank that have damaged the environment as well as being, against international law (International Court of Justice ruling 2004).

Invasive Alien Species

Invasive alien (non-indigenous) species are defined as non-native species of flora and fauna whose introduction can pose a threat to local biodiversity (Bax, 2001). Invasive alien species are the second most destructive human influence on biodiversity after direct habitat destruction by humans (Simberloff, 2005). This not only affects local environments  but also threatens agriculture (Mack et al. 2000; Pimentel et al. 2001).  Nearly half a million species have been reported as invasive worldwide (Pimental et al., 2001 see also global invasive species database). The term "invasive" is used for the most aggressive of these species as they grow and reproduce rapidly, causing major disturbances to nature in areas in which they are present. Positive interactions among non-native species have the potential to disrupt ecosystems by amplifying invasions and can occur via indirect mechanisms (Adams et al., 2003). The invasiveness threat has increased because both ease of transportation and human habitat destruction open many opportunities for invasive alien species to establish themselves around the world. In fact, these invasive species are now considered the second most important threat to biodiversity after direct habitat destruction by humans (Kettunen et al., 2009; UNEP-WCMC 2012).

There is still some debate on the issue of whether increased local biodiversity protects from invasive alien species or not, and how best to deal with this phenomenon (Levine, 2000), including how climate change could be a key factor of increasing invasiveness around the world (Ziska and Dukes, 2014). Climate change could be a key factor for increasing invasiveness around the world (Hellman et al., 2008). Moreover, the influence of invasive alien species is not limited to the macro-scale; they also affect the diversity and success of diseases by disrupting previously stable communities and can drive local species to extinction through genetic hybridization.  Invasive alien species in historic Palestine varied between groups, and they keep increasing and currently include 2 mammals, 18 birds, 2 reptiles, 27 fish, 50 vascular plants, 19 freshwater snails, 33 land snails, and over 200 insects (Roll et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2008, 2009; Dufour-Dror, 2012).

Within the SP, there are 50 invasive plant species of which the most aggressively  invasive ones are Acacia saligna, Ailanthus altissima, Conyza bonariensis, Oxalis pes-caprae, Ambrosia confertiflora, Ricinus communis, Nicotiana glauca, Prosopis juliflora and Solanum elaeagnifolium. Nine invasive bird species are reported in SP and four of them are detected in the West Bank: Indian Silverbill Lonchura malabarica, Common Myna Acridotheres tristis, Monk Parakeet Myiopsitta monachus and Rose-ringed Parakeet Pisttacula krameri. Most species have been deliberately brought in captivity and subsequently released or escaped. For example, the Common Myna were introduced in 1997 after a group of birds escaped from the Park Hayarkon area in Tel Aviv (Handal and Qumsiyeh 2021).

Amongst mammals, the house mouse, black rat, and coypu are noted. Fish have been introduced unintentionally and intentionally for various reasons to many regions (Roll et al., 2007b). In Historic Palestine, 27 introduced species are found in the Jordan Basin, Sea of Galilee, and the coastal plain rivers. Of these 27, 10 are invasive alien species: Oncorhynchus mykiss, Salmo trutta, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Gambusia affinis, Poecilia velifera, Xiphophorus hellerii, Liza ramada, Mugil cephalus, Oreochromis aureus and Tilapia zillii, which have established themselves in the Jordan River Basin within fishponds and some of them have penetrated to the river itself (Roll et al., 2007b). According to Lowe et al., (2000) two of these 10 species are considered aggressively invasive: Brown trout, Salmo trutta and the Rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss.

There are around 33 introduced species of freshwater and land snails within SP, of which 19 are considered invasive. The majority of snails have been introduced via import of seedlings and aquaria fishes (Roll et al., 2009). Some invasive land snails such as Cornu aspersum, Eobania  vermiculata and  Rumina decollate have been observed in the West Bank. Moreover, these two freshwater snails are among the most invasive: Pseudoplotia scabra and Planorbella duryi (Handal et al., in preparation).   Furthermore, Prietocella barbara was detected in a shipment of Red Cabbage to the Gaza Strip (Vaisman & Mienis, 2016a, 2016b). Another invasive alien species found in the Gaza Strip is Novisuccinea ovalis, recorded during the occupation by Israel (1967-2005) (Vaisman & Mienis, 2016a, 2016b).

Among the invasive alien species within the West Bank and Gaza Strip is the prevalence of the Red Palm Weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, which has led to a devastating loss in crops (Kehat, 1999; Abd Rabou & Radwan, 2017). Other studies have revealed the existence of 26 invasive alien insects associated with Eucalyptus trees which were introduced from various countries (Mendel & Protasov, 2019). One of the most invasive species, with high impact upon public health, is the Asian Tiger Mosquito, Aedes albopictus (Adawi, 2012). Another study recorded the presence in SP the Western Conifer Seed Bug Leptoglossus occidentalis (Handal & Qumsiyeh, 2019). Paratrechina longicornis, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and Deroplax silphoides have also been shown to be within SP (Handal, 2017; Handal and Qumsiyeh, 2019).

The invasive alien species in SP are expanding both in number of species and in the scale of their proliferation. The sole restrictions on the import of invasive alien species into the country are those of the Ministry of Agriculture, but Israel remains the authority in charge of borders (EQA, 2015). There are ongoing studies on the issue of invasive flora and fauna in SP. However, very few control measures have been developed and implemented. Based on the study submitted 2022 on IAS, it is recommended:

  1. More capacity building and educational activities, formal and informal, for research into IAS.
  2. Implement surveillance and early warning mechanisms, including dissemination and response
  3. Develop and implement awareness campaigns on invasive alien species. This includes school curricular and extra-curricular activities, billboards, workshops and the use of social and mainstream media. Campaigns should integrate also with existing programs like protected area management.
  4. Strengthen legislation related to IAS and work with relevant authorities (Ministries of Agriculture, EQA, local councils, etc.) to stop the spread of and to eradicate invasive alien species.
  5. Cross-sectoral work to stop invasive alien species (local and national governments, NGOs, academia, private sector)
  6. Regional cooperation is imperative.

Pollution

According to the latest available estimate (SP 2020a), SP annually produces 7103 tons of hazardous waste (6.4% of total waste) of which 1420 tons are hazardous medical waste. In the early 2000s, the average general waste production per person was 0.94 kg/capita/day, with an increase of about 1% per capita per year, but waste in urban areas is nearly double that of rural areas (Al- Khatib et al., 2007).  Idhna, within the Hebron District, is a major site for e-waste recycling, of which the majority is illegally transported from Israel, and it has significant health impacts (Khlaif and Qumsiyeh, 2017). Waste from the Barqan industrial settlement impacts the natural resources of the nearby valley as well as on human health (Hammad and Qumsiyeh, 2013).

There are thousands of tons of waste due to successive wars on the Gaza strip and from building destruction generally, which is polluted with depleted uranium and white phosphorus that reaches the Mediterranean Sea via rainwater.  Waste water is dumped on some significant and supposedly protected areas like Wadi Qana, Wadi Nar, Wadi Far’a (Bathan), and around Salfit (EQA, 2015) and into the Mediterranean Sea where it is highly damaging to the environment (Akram and Cheslow, 2016).

The National Strategy for Solid Waste Management (NSSWM 2017-2022) addresses the appropriate treatment of all hazardous waste (including industrial, medical, agriculture, -etc.). Under the MoLG, there is a general directorate of Joint Services Councils (JSCs). These JSCs work to manage solid waste and their actions are described in detail in the Solid Waste Management Strategy (MoLG, 2016). Due to the problems in the SWM field within SP, Saadeh et al, (2019) conducted a study on 12 JSCs which revealed that only two of them have acquired a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) contract for the management and operation of the transfer station and the sanitary landfill. Also, these two JSCs are currently making arrangements and implementing studies for future PPPs on waste-to-energy, biowaste management and recycling projects. Data from MoLG indicates that the percentage of solid waste that is dumped in a sanitary manner out of the total waste produced in 2019 was about 98%. This percentage is expected to reach 100% in 2023. According to the data from the EQA and the MoLG, the percentage of hazardous waste that is treated, out of the total waste produced, reached only 2% in 2019, and it is expected to reach 10% by 2023. Sewage management in the SP is critical. In Gaza, a great amount of sewage flows untreated to the Mediterranean Sea (Ashour et al. 2009). Thus, sewage treatment facilities such as in Rafah facilitated by ICRC is a great step (ARIJ 2016). Furthermore, some aquatic plants can be used to improve water purification; for example, Azolla sp. can be used to treat sewage and remove nutrients (Costa et al. 1999). According to UNEP (2003), 70% of solid waste in SP is organic waste which can be reduced via composting to generate fertilizers (Al-Khatib et al. 2010).

Since SP is a developing country, it has several obstacles in its solid and liquid waste management (Talahmeh 2005). The political situation is also one of the main factors which hinder the development of proper measures for sanitary disposal of solid wastes, in spite of having strategic and action plans in place (Ministry of Environmental Affairs, 2001; Musleh and Giacaman 2001).  Leakage from random dumps may contaminate the groundwater, which is the primary drinking water source. Moreover, most dump sites are not fenced and easily accessible by stray animals, waste scavengers, and children. This is a disaster, as medical waste is disposed of in the same dumps without proper segregation and treatment which places people and animals accessing those dumps at risk of infection from various diseases. While some new landfills were established, for example the Al-Minya landfill to serve the south of the West Bank, these are inadequate for societal needs and leakage from solid waste dump sites is not adequately addressed (ARIJ, 2016; MoLG, 2016).

Limited recycling initiatives have been put into practice in the West Bank in the past. These initiatives were mostly privately owned and focused mainly on metals, paper, and glass recycling. Metals and glass were locally utilized, whereas other items such as automobile scrap were sold to Israeli firms for utilization in Israel (EQA, 2006). Unfortunately, poor children are hired to scavenge the waste for insignificant pay. Some projects have been carried out in the West Bank; for example, the Save the Children organization conducted a project between 1999 and 2001, aiming to improve sanitation and environmental health in needy urban and rural communities to support the newly established JSC in both Anabta village (Tulkarem district) and Dura village (Hebron district, southern West Bank) (Abu-Eisheh et al., 2002).

There is a real crisis in logistics and financing for proper solid waste disposal in SP (Abu Thaher, 2005). The majority of solid waste disposed of in Palestinian areas like Nablus is organic which indicates a great potential for resource utilization such as for composting/fertilizer generation.  But, as in many developing countries, management of such solid wastes significantly lags behind. The situation for sewage management in SP is critical. In Gaza, a significant portion of the sewage flows untreated to the Mediterranean Sea (Ashour et al., 2009) but improvements are happening (ARIJ 2016).Waste management is impacted mainly by Israeli occupation of Gaza (Caniato et al., 2016).

An updated National Action Plan (NAP) for the prevention of pollution of the Mediterranean Sea from land-based sources in SP were formulated and the drafting process of the plan was implemented in four stages: NAP legal basis, Midterm baseline assessment (wastewater, marine area, and solid waste), Identification of gaps in enforcement of laws, policies and regulations, in addition to NAP Operational Targets.

Regular compost, vermicompost (worm fertilizer), and biochar can be developed as a byproduct (Alkobaisy et al., 2021; Garg et al., 2006; Lehmann, 2007; Wang et al., 2018). There are many other ways to manage agriculture and farming activities in bio-friendly ways (Ravindran et al., 2020). Campaigns and activities revive the spirit of volunteerism and promote local-community-supported solutions to big problems. These initiatives are tackling the solid waste issue through different approaches and means, all of which are inspiring. They can be placed in the following categories: volunteer groups leading awareness and cleanup campaigns in both rural and urban areas; initiatives and enterprises on recycling paper/cardboard and plastic, as well as engineers producing building materials from construction waste and the rubbles of destroyed building; individuals or start-ups conducting entrepreneurship projects and creating mobile applications and platforms for material recycling and reuse; artists initiating projects for upcycling of all sorts of materials; individuals and groups raising awareness through blogs and other social media..

Colonial occupation and conflict

In addition to the five major threats discussed above the situation in SP has one more major local threat, which is the presence of the Israeli colonial occupation. In 2005, the last Millennium Development Goals (MDG) were published by the Palestinian National MDG Steering Committee, led by the Ministry of Planning of the Palestinian Authority. In its remarkable honesty, it states that the targets for 2015 for sustainability and environmental issues will not be reached because of: “lack of control over natural resources, particularly water and land, due to occupation, and early stage of environmental protection.”

Historically, SP suffers from a number of challenges related to colonialism, before and after 1948 (Tal 2002; Boast 2012). The Israeli actions toward water sources have been catastrophic for nature biodiversity since 1948, starting from drying out the al Hula wetlands which eradicated life there, and not ending with the Red Sea - Dead Sea Canal project. The latter is a prime environmental problem and should not have been implemented. Its impact in SP will be most acutely felt in the unnatural “replenishment” of the Dead Sea while leaving the Jordan Valley essentially dry and with continued environmental deterioration. Some work was done on this, but much more research needs to be done and the summary of these are beyond the scope of this report. The challenges are articulated in the 6th National CBD report and in other published works (UNEP 2003; Elmusa 1998; Messerschmid and Selby 2015; Baalousha, 2006; UN, 2012; Rudolph and Kurian 2022).

Planning at all stages is hampered, from environmental regulations implementation (Qumsiyeh and Albaradeiyeh, 2022) to even simple waste management. For example, efforts of the PNA to get Israel to agree, to waste water and solid waste facilities’ which Israel refuses to authorize unless Palestinians agree to take in colonial settlement waste, from illegal settlements as per international law (Tal 2002). The Israeli occupation is one of causes of habitat destruction leading to a decline in the biodiversity of SP. shows the many ways Israeli occupation affects the Palestinian nature and natural resources (ARIJ 2007, 2015). The UNEP report (2003) identified the following as key effects of the occupation:

  1. Direct degradation arising from military operations;
  2. Increasing of human population pressure on natural systems from high population growth and the long-lasting refugee crisis;
  3. Rapid growth of Israeli settlements and supporting roads in areas where land is already scarce;
  4. Restrictions on communications, movement and access, limiting implementation of environmental management measures;
  5. Construction of separation fence and wall that effectively block movement of terrestrial fauna, and cut the natural ecological corridors;
  6. Threats from solid waste and wastewater pollution;
  7. Clearing of land of vegetation by Israel for security purposes and as a result of other causes.

The creation of Israel and its occupation of the 1967 areas emphasized settlement building, military security, territorial security and demographic security but does not mention environmental security (Tal 2002; Newman 2009). Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention (to which Israel is a signatory) clearly states that, "The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies". Between 1993 and 2000, the population of settlers in the occupied areas doubled to over 450,000 and today stands at 900,000. Israeli colonies in the occupied areas were intended for security and control.  Thus, most land confiscation and colonial settlement activity was intentionally concentrated on the high grounds on hills and mountains (Benvenisti, 2002; Weizman, 2012).  Thus, there was no forethought on environmental sustainability or clear ideas to ensure population harmony with natural resources and the environment (ARIJ, 2015).  We find that there are settlements in every Palestinian district, and facilities such as sewage treatment plants are not made available to the local Palestinian population.  Untreated sewage water is discharged and in most cases, this discharge directly goes to the areas inhabited or farmed by Palestinians (ARIJ, 2002; Newman, 2009).

Due to this peculiar arrangement, a runoff of wastewater, pollution from industrial colonists in declared “industrial zones”, and soil erosion have directly impacted Palestinian communities located in the lower areas adjacent to these colonies. The UN Commission on Human Rights documented these negative effects in 2000 and the situation only got worse since. Palestinian sources estimate that at least 200 Israeli factories operate in the West Bank. Some of the products are identifiable, but detailed information on quantities produced, labor, and waste generated are not available. The environmental impact is illustrated by reports on the Barqan industrial settlement (Hammad and Qumsiyeh, 2013). There is accumulating evidence that Israel’s use of substances like white phosphorous in the SP is harmful to human health and the environment (Naim et al. 2012). Many of the highest polluting companies simply moved, and actually were provided with tax incentives, to the West Bank and Gaza where Israeli Government regulations were more lax.  There, the companies only faced the opposition of native Palestinians who had no realistic way to stop them.  For example, Gishuri Industries, a manufacturer of pesticides and fertilizers which faced significant court setbacks in its original plant in Kfar Saba, was moved to an area adjacent to Tulkarm inside the West Bank in 1987.  Significant pollution from this and other companies in this area has damaged citrus and vineyards (ARIJ, 2015).

Israel’s ongoing construction of nearly 760 km of apartheid segregation barrier (walls and fences) since 2003 has already uprooted 1.5 million trees. Other infrastructure includes over 1500 kilometers of settler roads, most separated from existing (and often dilapidated) Palestinian road systems.  Israel has also built an extensive network of so-called "by-pass" roads in the occupied areas.  These roads stretched for 340 km in 2000 and now have increased significantly.  They bypass native Palestinian towns and are used to serve Jewish settlements. Large tracts of lands are confiscated to build these roads, which include 75 meters on either side of the roads as "safety buffers".  Trees and hills and any standing structure within the 75 meters on both sides are bulldozed and the areas are declared closed military zones to Palestinians.

There are many other issues where the occupation can affect sustainable development and protection of the environment (see MOPAD 2014 for a summary). There is a significant theft of natural resources in contradiction of the 4th Geneva Convention. The cost of occupation even without counting natural resourses is in the billions annually. The disparity between settlers and natives in land control, economy, and access is also compounded by disparity in use of other natural resources especially water.The issue of water is the most significant and will be even more going forward (Gasteyer et al., 2012; Al-Haq 2013).  Cooperation with long-term occupiers/colonizers in waste management should not lead to normalization and strengthening of the status quo of occupation by treating the waste from settlers in “joint facilities” (see e.g. Barak, 2012).

The confiscation of land for settlements is a major threat to Palestinian nature reserves. One of the most important examples is the confiscation of Ras Imweis and six adjacent areas, one of which is called Nahal Shilo, located northwest of Ramallah. Cases of destruction and distortion of nature reserves in the occupied West Bank for the implementation of various Israeli colonial projects is an integral part of Israeli practice. Israel has exploited the term “Nature Reserve”, for example in the Bethlehem Governorate when Har Homa settlement was established in 1997 on Abu Ghneim Mountain, which was considered one of the largest forests in Bethlehem.

Israel has also given freedom to Israeli corporations to benefit from Palestinian natural resources including land (Longobardo, 2016). For example, Israeli stone quarries are built in the occupied West Bank Mountains, harming the environment and depriving locals of a key resource (Abdallah and de Leeuw, 2020). There is also pillage of the Dead Sea resources. For example, within two decades of its launch in 1988, the annual global sales of Ahava, an Israeli cosmetics company which uses minerals from the Dead Sea, had reached almost $150m (£95m). The company has been the target of boycott campaigns.  Meanwhile, Palestinians are prevented from using the Dead Sea area for tourism (Abu-Baker and Farah, 2020; Al-Haq, 2012; Popperl, 2018).

The USGS (2010) estimates there are a mean of 1.7 billion barrels of recoverable oil and a mean of 122 trillion cubic feet of recoverable gas in the Levant basin (overlapping Lebanon, Jordan, State of Palestine, and Israel). Palestinians have no control over their legally protected oil and gas resources which are now explored and utilized for Israel. Israel actually placed fishing restrictions on local people partly to keep them away from these resources (Ismail et al., 2013). There are significant conservation challenges in relation to exploration and utilization of hydrocarbon resources (Mazor et al., 2018).

The occupation also threatens cultural heritage/cultural resources (Rjoob, 2009). These can be considered a resource but are also important for a developed national and cultural identity that can empower people to act, including for protection of their lands and other natural resources.

To summarize, there is significant theft of natural resources from the occupied Palestinian territories (land, water, stone, oil, gas, etc.), and significant restriction by the occupying State on the use of any remaining natural resources. However, action on the environment can also be used as a form of resistance (Al-Butmeh et al., 2019; Qumsiyeh., 2021; Qumsiyeh and Abusarhan 2020; Qumsiyeh and AlBardeya, 2022).

 

See References in the Publications